Constantine I ('The Great') Gaius Flavius Valerius Constantinus (Emperor Of The Roman Empire - 306-337)

Other Events:

• Occupation: Emperor of Rome (306)
• _UID: 7693E8C7C34E4EA0B0259317A53BD27C64BF

Notes:

From Hans A. Pohlsander, SUNY Albany -

Constantine I (306 - 337 A.D.)

Introduction - The emperor Constantine has rightly been called the mostimportant emperor of Late Antiquity. His powerful personality laid thefoundations of post-classical European civilization; his reign waseventful and highly dramatic. His victory at the Milvian Bridge countsamong the most decisive moments in world history, while his legalizationand support of Christianity and his foundation of a 'New Rome' atByzantium rank among the most momentous decisions ever made by a Europeanruler. The fact that ten Byzantine emperors after him bore his name maybe seen as a measure of his importance and of the esteem in which he washeld.

Constantine's Rise to Power - Flavius Valerius Constantinus, the futureemperor Constantine, was born at Naissus in the province of MoesiaSuperior, the modern Nish in Serbia, on 27 February of 271, 272, or 273. His father was a military officer named Constantius (laterConstantius Chlorus or Constantius I), his mother a woman of humblebackground named Helena (later St. Helena). There is good reason tothink that Constantius and Helena lived in concubinage rather than inlegally recognized marriage. Having previously attained the rank oftribune, provincial governor, and probably praetorian prefect,Constantius was raised, on 1 March 293, to the rank of Caesar in theFirst Tetrarchy organized by Diocletian. On this occasion he wasrequired to put aside Helena and to marry Theodora, the daughter ofMaximian. Upon the retirement of Diocletian and Maximian on 1 May305 Constantius succeeded to the rank of Augustus.

Constantine, in the meanwhile, had served with distinction under bothDiocletian and Galerius in the East. Kept initially at the court ofGalerius as a pledge of good conduct on his father's part, he was laterallowed to join his father in Britain and assisted him in a campaignagainst the Picts. When Constantius died, on 25 July 306, at Eburacum(York), Constantine was at his side. The soldiers at once proclaimed himAugustus; Constantine henceforth observed this day as his diesimperii. Having settled affairs in Britain swiftly, he returned to theContinent, where the city of Augusta Treverorum (Trier) served as hisprincipal residence for the next six years. There, too, in 307, hemarried Maximian's daughter Fausta, putting away his mistressMinervina, who had borne him his first son, Crispus. Trier's"Kaiserthermen" (Imperial Baths) and Basilica (the aula palatina ) giveevidence to this day of Constantine's residence in the city.

At the same time the Senate and the Praetorian Guard in Rome had alliedthemselves with Maxentius, the son of Maximian. On 28 October 306 theyproclaimed him emperor, in the lower rank of princeps initially,although he later claimed the rank of Augustus. Constantine andMaxentius, although they were brothers-in-law, did not trust each other.Their relationship was further complicated by the schemes andconsequently, in 310, the death of Maximian. Open hostilities between thetwo rivals broke out in 312, and Constantine won a decisive victory inthe famous Battle of the Milvian Bridge. This made Constantine thesole ruler of the western half of the empire.

Constantine's Conversion - When Diocletian and Maximian announced theirretirement in 305, the problem posed by the Christians was unresolved andthe persecution in progress. Upon coming to power Constantineunilaterally ended all persecution in his territories, even providing forrestitution. His personal devotions, however, he offered first to Marsand then increasingly to Apollo, reverenced as Sol Invictus.

The next significant event in Constantine's religious developmentoccurred in 312. Lactantius, whom Constantine appointed tutor of his sonCrispus and who therefore must have been close to the imperialfamily, reports that during the night before the Battle of the MilvianBridge Constantine was commanded in a dream to place the sign of Christon the shields of his soldiers. Twenty-five years later Eusebiusgives us a far different, more elaborate, and less convincing account inhis Life of Constantine. When Constantine and his army were ontheir march toward Rome - neither the time nor the location is specified- they observed in broad daylight a strange phenomenon in the sky: across of light and the words "by this sign you will be victor" (hoc signovictor eris or ). During the next night, so Eusebius' accountcontinues, Christ appeared to Constantine and instructed him to place theheavenly sign on the battle standards of his army. The new battlestandard became known as the labarum.

Whatever vision Constantine may have experienced, he attributed hisvictory to the power of "the God of the Christians" and committed himselfto the Christian faith from that day on, although his understanding ofthe Christian faith at this time was quite superficial. It has often beensupposed that Constantine's profession of Christianity was a matter ofpolitical expediency more than of religious conviction; upon closerexamination this view cannot be sustained. Constantine did not receivebaptism until shortly before his death (see below). It would be a mistaketo interpret this as a lack of sincerity or commitment; in the fourth andfifth centuries Christians often delayed their baptisms until late inlife.

In February 313, probably, Constantine and Licinius met at Milan. On thisoccasion Constantine's half-sister Constantia was wed to Licinius. Alsoon this occasion, the two emperors formulated a common religious policy.Several months later Licinius issued an edict which is commonly buterroneously known as the Edict of Milan. Unlike Constantine,Licinius did not commit himself personally to Christianity; even hiscommitment to toleration eventually gave way to renewed persecution.Constantine's profession of Christianity was not an unmixed blessing tothe church. Constantine used the church as an instrument of imperialpolicy, imposed upon it his imperial ideology, and thus deprived it ofmuch of the independence which it had previously enjoyed.

Constantine as the Sole Ruler of the West - To his dismay Constantinesoon discovered that there was a lack of unity within the church. In theprovince of Africa, specifically, there were those who took a rigoristposition towards the lapsi (those who had shown a lack of faith duringthe preceding years of persecution) and those who took a more moderate,forgiving position. The former eventually became known as the Donatists,after a certain Donatus, whom they elected as their bishop. In April of313 the rigorists presented to Constantine their grievance againstCaecilian, the bishop of Carthage. Constantine convened a synod ofbishops to hear the complaint; the synod met in Rome's Lateran Counciland is known as the Synod of Rome. When the synod ruled in favor ofCaecilian, the Donatists appealed to Constantine again. In response tothe appeal Constantine convened a larger council of thirty-three bishops,who met at Arles in southern Gaul on 1 August 314. This council, too,ruled against the Donatists, and again they refused to submit.Constantine attempted, unsuccessfully, to suppress them. A separatistDonatist church possessed considerable strength in North Africa over thenext two centuries.

Rome's famous Arch of Constantine was completed in time for the beginningof Constantine's decennalia (the tenth anniversary of his acclamation). There were all manner of festivities, but Constantine pointedlyomitted the traditional sacrifices to the pagan gods.

Constantine left his mark on the city of Rome with an ambitious buildingprogram, both secular and religious. In the Forum Romanum he completedthe basilica which Maxentius had left unfinished. On the Quirinal Hill,where the presidents of Italy now reside, he had a bath built. TheBasilica of St. John Lateran, the Basilica of St. Peter, and the Basilicaof St. Sebastian on the Appian Way all are Constantinian foundations. Ofspecial interest is the Basilica of Sts. Marcellinus and Peter, on theancient Via Labicana, because attached to it was the vaulted rotundawhich Constantine originally had intended as a mausoleum for himself andhis family but ultimately received only the body of his mother Helena;its considerable remains are known today as the Tor Pignattara.

The Conflict with Licinius - The ultimate goal pursued by bothConstantine and Licinius was sole power. The agreement of 313 had beenborn out of necessity, not of mutual good will. Even Constantia'sapparent devotion to Licinius did little to ease the strainedrelationship between the two rivals. Hostilities erupted in 316. In the course of this first war between the two emperors two battles werefought: the first at Cibalae in Pannonia, whence this war is called thebellum Cibalense, the second on the campus Ardiensis in Thrace. In thefirst battle Licinius' army suffered heavy losses; in the second neitherside won a clear victory.

A settlement left Licinius in his position as Augustus, but required himto cede to Constantine all of his European provinces other than Thrace.On 1 March 317, at Serdica (modern Sofia), Constantine announced theappointment of three Caesars: his own son Crispus, about twelve yearsold, his own son Constantine, less than seven months old, and Licinius'son, also named Licinius, twenty months old. But the concordiaAugustorum was fragile; tensions grew again, in part because the twoAugusti pursued different policies in matters of religion, in partbecause the old suspicions surfaced again.

War erupted again in 324. Constantine defeated Licinius twice, first atAdrianople in Thrace, and then at Chrysopolis on the Bosporus. Initially, yielding to the pleas of Constantia, Constantine spared thelife of his brother-in-law, but some months later he ordered hisexecution, breaking his solemn oath. Before too long the youngerLicinius, too, fell victim to Constantine's anger or suspicions. Constantine was now the sole and undisputed master of the Roman world.

The Arian Controversy, the Council of Nicaea, and its Aftermath - Earlyin the fourth century a dispute erupted within the Christian churchregarding the nature of the Godhead, more specifically the exactrelationship of the Son to the Father. Arius, a priest in Alexandria,taught that there was a time when Christ did not exist, i.e. that he wasnot co-eternal with the Father, that the Father, the Son, and the HolySpirit were three separate and distinct hypostaseis, and that the Son wassubordinate to the Father, was in fact a "creature." These teachings werecondemned and Arius excommunicated in 318 by a council convened byAlexander, the bishop of Alexandria. But that did not by any means closethe matter. Ossius (or Hosius) of Cordova, Constantine's trustedspiritual advisor, failed on his mission to bring about a reconciliation.

Constantine then summoned what has become known as the First EcumenicalCouncil of the church. The opening session was held on 20 May 325 in thegreat hall of the palace at Nicaea, Constantine himself presiding andgiving the opening speech. The council formulated a creed which, althoughit was revised at the Council of Constantinople in 381-82, has becomeknown as the Nicene Creed. It affirms the homoousion, i.e. the doctrineof consubstantiality. A major role at the council was played byAthanasius, Bishop Alexander's deacon, secretary, and, ultimately,successor. Arius was condemned.

If Constantine had hoped that the council would settle the issue forever,he must have been bitterly disappointed. The disputes continued, andConstantine himself vacillated. Eusebius of Nicomedia, a supporter ofArius exiled in 325, was recalled in 327 and soon became the emperor'schief spiritual advisor. In 335 Athanasius, now bishop of Alexandria andunbending in his opposition to some of Constantine's policies, was sentinto exile at far-away Trier.

The Crisis in the Imperial Family - At some time in 326 Constantineordered the execution of his oldest son Crispus, who had been appointedCaesar in 317, had three times served as consul, and had distinguishedhimself in the recent campaign against Licinius. In the same year, soonafter the death of Crispus, Constantine also brought about the death ofFausta, the mother of his other three sons. A connection between the twodeaths is likely. Zosimus reports that Crispus had come under suspicionof "being involved" with his stepmother Fausta. The Epitome ofAurelius Victor reports that Constantine killed Fausta when his motherHelena rebuked him for the death of Crispus. It is impossible nowto separate fact from gossip and to know with certainty what offensesCrispus and Fausta had committed. Both of them suffered damnatio memoriaeand were never rehabilitated. Some involvement of Helena in this familytragedy cannot be excluded, but there is no reason to shift theresponsibility from Constantine to her.

Shortly after these sad events, probably in 326-28, Helena undertook apigrimage to the Holy Land. It has been suggested that this pilgrimagewas an act of expiation, either for her own sins or for those of her son. In the course of her journey Helena impressed Eusebius of Caesareaand others by her piety, humility, and charity. She played a role in thebuilding of the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem and the Church of theEleona on Jerusalem's Mount of Olives; but the Church of the HolySepulcher seems to have been an undertaking of Constantine alone. A tradition more cherished than trustworthy credits Helena with theinventio of the True Cross.

The New Rome - During the First Tetrarchy Trier, Milan, Thessalonike, andNicomedia had served as imperial residences, and the importance of Romeas a center of government had thus been considerably reduced. Constantinewent far beyond this when he refounded the ancient Greek city ofByzantium as Constantinople and made it the capital of the empire. Hisdecision to establish a new capital in the East ranks in its far-reachingconsequences with his decision to adopt Christianity. The new capitalenjoyed a most favorable location which afforded easy access to both theBalkan provinces and the eastern frontier, controlled traffic through theBosporus, and met all conditions for favorable economic development.

On 8 November 324, less than two months after his victory over Liciniusat Chrysopolis, Constantine formally laid out the boundaries of his newcity, roughly quadrupling its territory. By 328 the new walls werecompleted, and on 11 May 330 the new city was formally dedicated. The NewRome, both in its physical features and in its institutions, resembledthe Old Rome. It was built on seven hills, it had a senate, and itspeople received subsidized grain. Constantine completed and enlarged thecity's hippodrome and placed in it the Serpent Column of Delphi. Thepalace which he built for himself afforded direct access to the kathisma,the royal box overlooking the hippodrome. A rather controversial monumentis the Column of Constantine, in the Forum of Constantine, built ofporphyry and 25 m. high; its remains are now known as the Burnt Column.It was crowned by a statue of Helios, its features suitably adapted so asto suggest Constantine himself.

Constantine without question began the construction of two major churchesin Constantinople, Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) and Hagia Eirene (HolyPeace); the foundation of a third, the Church of the Holy Apostles, maybe attributed to him with a measure of certainty. Unlike the Old Rome,which was filled with pagan monuments and institutions, the New Rome wasessentially a Christian capital (and eventually the see of a patriarch),although not all traces of its pagan past had been eliminated.

Constantine's Government - The prevailing character of Constantine'sgovernment was one of conservatism. His adoption of Christianity did notlead to a radical reordering of society or to a systematic revision ofthe legal system. Generally refraining fom sweeping innovations, heretained and completed most of the arrangements made by Diocletian,especially in provincial administration and army organization. Onenotable change pertained to the praetorian prefects; these now becamecivilian ministers assisting the Augustus or the Caesars. In the courseof a successful reform of the currency Constantine instituted a new typeof coin, the gold solidus , which won wide acceptance and remained thestandard for centuries to come. Some of Constantine's measuresshow a genuine concern for the welfare and the morality of his subjects,even for the condition of slaves. By entrusting some government functionsto the Christian clergy he actually made the church an agency of theimperial government. Constantine did not neglect the security of thefrontiers. He campaigned successfully in 306-308 and 314-15 on the Germanfrontier, in 332 against the Goths, in 334 against the Sarmatians, and in336 again on the Danube frontier.

The arrangements which Constantine made for his own succession were quiteunsatisfactory. During the last two years of his reign there were fourCaesars: his sons Constantine (II), Constantius (II), and Constans,having been appointed in 317, 324, and 333 respectively, and his nephewFlavius Dalmatius (whose father, of like name, was a son of Constantius Iand Theodora), appointed in 335. It is not clear which of theseConstantine intended to take precedence upon his death.

Final Years , Death, and Burial - In the years 325-337 Constantinecontinued his support of the church even more vigorously than before,both by generous gifts of money and by specific legislation. Among hisnumerous church foundations the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalemand the Golden Octagon in Antioch deserve to be singled out. At the sametime, he was more inclined to suppress paganism; we know of some specificpagan temples which were torn down upon his orders, while in other casestemple treasures were confiscated and the proceeds fed into the imperialtreasury.

Shortly after Easter (3 April) 337 Constantine began to feel ill. Hetraveled to Drepanum, now named Helenopolis in honor of his mother, wherehe prayed at the tomb of his mother's favorite saint, the martyr Lucian.From there he proceeded to the suburbs of Nicomedia, and there he wasbaptized, as both Eusebius and Jerome report; but only Jerome addsanother significant fact: the baptism was performed by the Arian bishopEusebius of Nicomedia.

A few weeks weeks later, on the day of Pentecost, 22 May, Constantinedied at Nicomedia, still wearing the white robes of a Christian neophyte.His body was escorted to Constantinople and lay in state in the imperialpalace. His sarcophagus was then placed in the Church of the HolyApostles, as he himself had directed; it was surrounded by the memorialsteles of the Twelve Apostles, making him symbolically the thirteenthApostle. Only on September 9 did Constantine II, Constantius II,and Constans each assume the rank of Augustus, after possible rivals,including the fourth Caesar, Flavius Dalmatius, had been eliminated in abloody coup. This bloody purge of members of the Royal family, ithas been argued, may have had its roots in the religious strife betweenthe Arian and Orthodox factions at the imperial court.

Icon of Saint Constantine I - In the Eastern Orthodox churchesConstantine is regarded a saint; he shares a feast day, May 21, with hismother, and additionally has a feast day of his own, September 3.

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Notes -
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.7-8 and 4.53, provides approximatedates only; see also Eutropius 10.8.2.
Attempts to place Constantine's birth in the 280's have been refuted byTimothy D. Barnes, The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine(Cambridge, Mass., 1982) 40-42.
Helena has received considerable attention in recent years. Seeespecially the following:
Jan Willem Drijvers, Helena Augusta: The Mother of Constantine the Greatand the Legend of Her Finding of the True Cross (Leiden 1992).
Hans A. Pohlsander, Helena: Empress and Saint (Chicago 1995).
Heinz Heinen, "Konstantins Mutter Helena: de stercore ad regnum," TriererZeitschrift 61 (1998) 227-40.
Ingemar K?nig, "Die Berufung des Constantius Chlorus und desGalerius zu Caesaren," Chiron 4 (1974) 567-76; Barnes, New Empire 4.
Eutropius 9.22.1; Jerome, Chron. Olymp. 267; Anonymus Valesianus orOrigo Constantini 1.1.
On the other hand a reference in Pan. Lat. 10.11.4 (edd. Baehrens,Mynors) or 2.11.4 (ed. Galletier) has prompted a number of scholars toconclude that Constantius and Theodora were married already by 289.
Lactantius, Mort. Pers. 19.
Lactantius, Mort. Pers. 24.8; Eusebius, Vita Const. 1.21-22;Anonymus Valesianus or Origo Constantini 4.
Pan. Lat. 6 (edd. Baehrens, Mynors) or 7 (ed. Galletier).
Barnes, New Empire 42-43, maintains that Constantine and Minervinawere legally married.
On Crispus see Hans A. Pohlsander, "Crispus: Brilliant Career and TragicEnd," Historia 33 (1984) 79-106.
Lactantius, Mort. Pers. 26.1.
Lactantius, Mort. Pers. 44; Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 9.9; Eusebius,Vita Const. 1. 38.
Jerome, Chron. Olymp. 274; De Vir. Ill. 80.
Klaus Kremer, "Laktanz: Erzieher von Konstantins Sohn Crispus zu Trier,"Kurtrierisches Jahrbuch 25 (1985) 35-59.
Lactantius, Mort. Pers. 44.5-6.
Eusebius, Vita Const. 1. 28-29.
Michael DiMaio, J?rn Zeuge, and Natalia Zotov, "AmbiguitasConstantiniana: The Caeleste Signum Dei of Constantine the Great,"Byzantion 58 (1988) 333-60, have argued that it is Lactantius' accountwhich represents the true course of events, because the emperor saw aconjunction of the planets Mars, Saturn, Jupiter, and Venus in theconstellations Capricorn and Sagittarius, something which was extremelynegative astrologically and would have undermined the morale ofConstantine's mainly pagan army. By putting a Christian interpretation onthe astronomical event, they suggest, the emperor converted the sign intoa positive force which would be useful to him.
Star Chart of the Chi-Rho in Constantine's Vision - Another, more recent,attempt to explain Constantine's vision as a natural phenomenon was madeby Peter Weiss, "Die Vision Constantins," in Jochen Bleicken, ed.,Colloquium aus Anlass des 80. Geburtstages von Alfred Heuss (FrankfurterAlthistorische Studien 13; Kallm?nz 1993) 143-69.
Constantius II, Theodosius I, St. Ambrose, and others delayedbaptism until late in life. See A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire(Oxford 1964) 981.
Lactantius, Mort. Pers. 48; Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 10.5.
W. H. C. Frend, The Donatist Church (Oxford 1952, 1976, and 1985).
Hans Peter L'Orange and Arnim von Gerkan, Der sp?tantikeBildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen (Berlin 1939).
Linda Jones Hall, "Cicero's instinctu divino and Constantine's instinctudivinitatis: The Evidence of the Arch of Constantine for the SenatorialView of the 'Vision' of Constantine," Journal of Early Christian Studies6 (1998) 647-71.
Richard Krautheimer, Corpus Basilicarum Christianarum Romae: TheEarly Basilicas of Rome. 5 vols. Vatican City 1937-1977.
Richard Krautheimer, Rome: Profile of a City, 312-1308 (Princeton 1980),Chapters 1-2.
Charles M. Odahl, "The Christian Basilicas of Constantinian Rome,"Ancient World 26 (1995) 3-28.
The date of the first war fought between Constantine and Liciniushas been a subject of controversy, as our primary sources are not withoutambiguity:
Aurelius Victor, Caes. 41.1-2 and 6; Anonymus Valesianus or OrigoConstantini 5.16-19; Zosimus 2. 18-20; and the ConsulariaConstantinopolitana or Fasti Hydatiani (Ed. Mommsen [MGH, AA IX = Chron.Min. I] 231).
The conventional date of 314 is found in much of the secondaryliterature:
Otto Seeck, Regesten der Kaiser und P?pste f?r die Jahre 311 bis 476 n.Chr. (Stuttgart 1919) 162.
Joseph Vogt, "Constantinus der Grosse," in RAC III (1957) 306-79 at 337.
A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602 (Oxford 1964; repr.Baltimore 1986) I 82.
Ramsay MacMullen, Constantine (New York 1969) 107.
Maria R. Alf?ldi, "Die Niederemmeler 'Kaiserfibel': Zum Datum des erstenKrieges zwischen Konstantin und Licinius," BJ 176 (1976) 183-200 at186-87.
Dietmar Kienast, "Das bellum Cibalense und die Morde des Licinius," inMichael Wissemann, Roma renascens: Beitr?ge zur Sp?tantike undRezeptionsgeschichte: Festschrift f?r Ilona Opelt (Frankfurt 1988)149-71.
Id., R?mische Kaisertabelle, 2nd ed. (Darmstadt 1996) 299.
The date of 314 was first challenged and 316 proposed instead by PatrickBruun (The Constantinian Coinage of Arelate (Helsinki 1953) 15-21;Studies in Constantinian Chronology (New York 1961) 10-22; RIC VII (1966)66, n. 1, and 76); this dating has been accepted also by others (Andr?Chastagnol in RN, 6th ser., 4 (1962) 323-33 at 326-30; Christian Habicht,"Zur Geschichte des Kaisers Konstantin," Hermes 86 (1958) 360-78 at360-70; Joseph Vogt, Constantin der Grosse und sein Jahrhundert, 2nd ed.(Munich 1960) 172; Timothy D. Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine," JRS63 (1973) 29-46 at 36-38; Id., Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge,Mass., 1982) 65-67; Id. New Empire 72-73; Thomas Gr?newald, ConstantinusMaximus Augustus: Herrschaftspropaganda in der zeitgen?ssischen?berlieferung (Historia Einzelschriften 64; Stuttgart 1990) 109-12;Christopher Ehrhardt, "Monumental Evidence for the Date of Constantine'sFirst War against Licinius," Ancient World 23 (1992) 87-94)
Roberto Andreotti has proposed that the bellum Cibalense was fought intwo phases, in 314 and 316 respectively ("Licinius (ValeriusLicinianus)," in Dizionario Epigrafico IV.1 (1959) 079-1040 at 1001 ff.,esp. 1004; id.,"Recenti contributi alla cronologia costantiniana,"Latomus 23 (1964) 537-55 at 548-52). More recently Andreotti's argumenthas been taken up in a joint article by Michael DiMaio, J?rn Zeuge, andJane Bethune: "Proelium Cibalense et Proelium Campi Ardiensis: The FirstCivil War of Constantine I and Licinius I," Ancient World 21 (1990)67-91. This, in turn, has been challenged by Hans A. Pohlsander, whodefends 316: "The Date of the Bellum Cibalense: A Reexamination," AncientWorld 25 (1995) 89-101.
Anonymus Valesianus or Origo Constantini 16-18.
For the abundant literary and epigraphical evidence seePohlsander, "Crispus" 86, n. 57.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2. 10-17; Anonymus Valesianus or OrigoConstantini 5; Zosimus 2. 18-28; Barnes, New Empire 75.
Eutropius 10.6.1; Jerome, Chron. Olymp. 275; Zosimus 2.28.2.
The literature on the subject is vast. The concise and accurateaccount provided by W. H. C. Frend, The Rise of Christianity(Philadelphia 1984) 492-501, affords a useful starting point.

Family/Spouse: Unknown. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

Constantine married on 31 Mar 307 in Arles, Bouches-Du-Rh?ne, Provence, France. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

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• _UID: 9670447D69FB463798E980768FD84E15E943

Notes:

Born March 31st, Emperor Flavius Valerius Constantius may have come intothe world ca. 250. His family was from Illyricum. In the army he servedas a protector, tribunus, and a praeses Dalmatiarum. During the 270s orthe 280s, he became the father of Constantine by Helena, his firstspouse. By 288 he was the Praetorian Prefect of the western emperorMaximianus Herculius.

On 1 March 293 Diocletian appointed Galerius as his Caesar (junioremperor) in the east and Constantius as the Caesar of MaximianusHerculius. Caesar in the west. Both Caesars had the right of succession.In order to strengthen the dynastic relationship between himself andHerculius., Constantius put aside his wife Helena and married Theodora,the daughter, or perhaps stepdaughter, of Maximianus Herculius.. Theunion was fruitful and of it there were six issue: Flavius Dalmatius,Julius Constantius, Hannibalianus, Constantia, Anastasia, and Eutropia.To strengthen his bond with Galerius and Diocletian in the east,Constantius allowed Galerius to keep his son Constantine as a hostage forhis good behavior.

In the remainder of the time that he was a Caesar, Constantius spent muchof his time engaged in military actions in the west. In the summer of 293Constantius expelled the troops of the usurper Carausius from northernGaul; after Constantius' attack on Bononia (Boulogne), Carausius wasmurdered. At the same time he dealt with the unrest of the Germans. In296 he invaded Britain and put down the revolt of the usurper Allectus.Between 300 and 305 A.D. the Caesar campaigned successfully several timeswith various German tribes. It is worth noting in passing, that while hiscolleagues rigidly enforced the "Great Persecution in 303," Constantiuslimited his action to knocking down a few churches.

On 1 May 305 Diocletian, at Nicomedia, and Maximianus Herculius, atMediolanum (Milan), divested themselves of the purple, probably becauseof the almost fatal illness that Diocletian contracted toward the end of304. Diocletian forced Maximianus to abdicate. They appointed as theirsuccessors Constantius and Galerius, with Severus and Maximinus Daia asthe new Caesars. The retired emperors then returned to private life.Constantius, as had his predecessor, ruled in the west, while Galeriusand Daia ruled in the east. Almost as soon as he was appointedAugustus, he crossed to Britain to face incursions by the Picts where hedied at York on 25 July 306 with his son at his side.

From Michael DiMaio, Jr., Salve Regina University -

Constantius I Chlorus (305-306 A.D.)

Constantius' Early Life and Marriage - Born March 31st, Emperor FlaviusValerius Constantius may have come into the world ca. 250. His family wasfrom Illyricum. In the army he served as a protector, tribunus, and apraeses Dalmatiarum. During the 270s or the 280s, he became the father ofConstantine by Helena, his first spouse. By 288 he was the PraetorianPrefect of the western emperor Maximianus Herculius.

Constantius' Reign as Caesar - On 1 March 293 Diocletian appointedGalerius as his Caesar (junior emperor) in the east and Constantius asthe Caesar of Maximianus Herculius. Caesar in the west. Both Caesars hadthe right of succession. In order to strengthen the dynastic relationshipbetween himself and Herculius., Constantius put aside his wife Helena andmarried Theodora, the daughter, or perhaps stepdaughter, of MaximianusHerculius.. The union was fruitful and of it there were six issue:Flavius Dalmatius, Julius Constantius, Hannibalianus, Constantia,Anastasia, and Eutropia. To strengthen his bond with Galerius andDiocletian in the east, Constantius allowed Galerius to keep his sonConstantine as a hostage for his good behavior.

In the remainder of the time that he was a Caesar, Constantius spent muchof his time engaged in military actions in the west. In the summer of 293Constantius expelled the troops of the usurper Carausius from northernGaul; after Constantius' attack on Bononia (Boulogne), Carausius wasmurdered. At the same time he dealt with the unrest of the Germans. In296 he invaded Britain and put down the revolt of the usurper Allectus.Between 300 and 305 A.D. the Caesar campaigned successfully several timeswith various German tribes. It is worth noting in passing, thatwhile his colleagues rigidly enforced the "Great Persecution in 303,"Constantius limited his action to knocking down a few churches.

Constantius as Augustus and His Untimely Death - On 1 May 305 Diocletian,at Nicomedia, and Maximianus Herculius, at Mediolanum (Milan), divestedthemselves of the purple, probably because of the almost fatal illnessthat Diocletian contracted toward the end of 304. Diocletian forcedMaximianus to abdicate. They appointed as their successors Constantiusand Galerius, with Severus and Maximinus Daia as the new Caesars. Theretired emperors then returned to private life. Constantius, as had hispredecessor, ruled in the west, while Galerius and Daia ruled in theeast. Almost as soon as he was appointed Augustus, he crossed toBritain to face incursions by the Picts where he died at York on 25 July306 with his son at his side.

Bibliography -

Barnes, T.D . Constantine and Eusebius,, Cambridge, 1980.
________. New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Cambridge, 1981.
DiMaio, Michael. Zonaras' Account of the Neo-Flavian Emperors, (Ph.D.diss., University of Missouri-Columbia, 1977).
Jones, A.H.M. J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris. "Fl. Val. Constantius 12."the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, (Cambridge, 1971),1.227-228.
Kienast, Dietmar. R?mische Kaisertabelle: Grundz?ge einer r?mischenKaiserchronologie. Darmstadt, 1990.
MacMullen, R. Constantine, New York, 1969.
Mattingly, Harold, and B.H. Warmington ."Constantius (Chlorus)." OCD.2281-282.
Seeck, Otto. "Constantius 1." RE 4, col.1040ff.

Notes -
Constantius' full name: ILS, 630, 641-3, 648, 650-52; suchvariations as Marcus Flavius Valerius Constantius(ibid, 637), ValeriusConstantius (ibid., 640), Gaius Valerius Constantius (ibid, 649), andGaius Fabius Constantius (ibid., 650a) appear on inscriptions.
Constantius' date of birth, homeland, and career: Michael DiMaio,Zonaras' Account of the Neo-Flavian Emperors: A Commentary, (Ph.D diss.,University of Missouri-Columbia, 1977), 97-98, nn 11-14; Constantius asMaxiamianus' Praetorian prefect: T.D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius,,(Cambridge, 1980), 3, 7-8, New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine,(Cambridge, 1981), 36-37.
For a discussion of Constantius' marriage to Helen, see infra, n.2.
For a listing of the sources on the dating Constantius rise to therank of Caesar, see A.H.M. Jones, J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris, theProsopography of the Later Roman Empire, (Cambridge, 1971), s.v. "Fl.Val. Constantius 12," 1.227-228, and Dietmar Kienast, R?mischeKaisertabelle, (Darmstadt, 1990), 276ff
The Caesarship of Constantius is discussed, for example, by O. Seeck, RE4, s.v. "Constantius 1," col.1041.57ff, and Ramsey MacMullen,Constantine, (New York, 1969), 35ff.
Barnes has summarized the problems and the sources surrounding themarriages of Constantius to Helen and to Theodora (New Empire), 33,36-37.
Constantius' campaigns are discussed by Barnes, Constantine andEusebius, 15ff, and by Harold Mattingly and B.H. Warmington, OCD,2s.v."Constantius (Chlorus)," 281-282.
Lact., Mort. Pers., 15.7
For a listing of sources which treat the acclamation of Constantiusto the rank of Augustus, see Barnes, New Empire, 4ff.
For a discussion of the death of Constantius and the sources thattreat it, see DiMaio, 96ff.

Copyright (C) 1996, Michael DiMaio, Jr. This file may be copied on thecondition that the entire contents, including the header and thiscopyright notice, remain intact.

Constantius married Saint Helena ('Of The Cross') (Flavia Iulia Helena) in 264. Saint was born in 248-249 in Drepanum (Helenopolis), Roman Province Of Bithynia; died in 328-329 in Nicomedia, Roman Province Of Bithynia; was buried in Mausoleum Near Ss. Marcellino E Pietro At The Via Labicana, Rome, Italy. [Group Sheet] [Family Chart]

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• _UID: AEC7D915CE71499EA0A9AB561A81583A0087

Notes:

A popular figure in the Orthodox tradition, St. Helena came from somewhatless than imperial circumstances. Born in Bithynia, she is said to havebeen the daughter of an innkeeper, a role which some have inferredslipped into prostitution. It is in this occupation that it is said sheconceived Constantine. Whether or not this is true, she did become theTetrarch's concubine. The two were to be separated by Constantius'marriage to Theodora.

Helena did not return to court until her son, Constantine, had assumedthe imperial purple. At court her influence was as great on the emperoras his wife's.

In 326, Helena made her now legendary pilgrimage to Palestine. Here theTrue Cross was revealed to her. She endowed many churches and becomeenjoined with her son in the Orthodox hagiography, both sharing the feastday 21st May, and becoming together the namesakes of innumerablechurches.

From Jan Willem Drijvers, University of Groningen -

Helena Augusta (248/249-328/329 A.D.) - Flavia Iulia Helena was probablyborn in the city of Drepanum in Bithynia. Various sources indicate thatDrepanum was renamed Helenopolis by Helena's son Constantinus I to honourand to perpetuate Helena's memory (e.g., Sozom., Hist. Eccl., 2.2.5).Procopius (Aedif. 5.2.1-5) mentions that Constantine changed the name ofDrepanum to Helenopolis because his mother was born there. Her year ofbirth may be established on Eusebius' remark (VC., 3.46) that she died atthe age of about eighty years. Since she probably died in 328/9, she musthave been born ca. 248/9. Helena was of low social origin. Ambrose (Deobit. Theod.,42) calls her a stabularia and Eutropius (Brev. 10.2)mentions that she was born ex obscuriore matrimonio. Philostorgius (Hist.Eccl., 2.16) calls her
a common woman not different from strumpets' (cf.also Zos. 2.8.2 and 2.9.2). Constantius I Chlorus and Helena probably metin Drepanum ca. 270. It is very likely that the pair lived inconcubinage, an accepted form of cohabitation for people of differentsocial origin. In 272/3 Helena gave birth to Constantine in Naissus. Itis not known whether Helena bore any other children besides Constantine.When in 289 Constantius became Caesar and married Theodora, he separatedfrom Helena and Helena's life recedes into obscurity for us.

The gap in our knowledge about Helena's life lasts at least until 306,when the troops in York proclaimed Constantine the successor of hisfather. It is probable that from this time on Helena joined her son'scourt. Constantine's foremost residences in the West were Trier and Rome.Ceiling frescoes in the imperial palace in Trier, on which Helenapossibly is depicted, as well as a lively medieval Helena tradition inTrier and its surroundings, may be an indication that Helena once livedin this northernmost, imperial residence. After Constantine had defeatedMaxentius at the Milvian Bridge, Helena probably came to live in Rome.The fundus Laurentus in the south-east corner of Rome, which included thePalatium Sessorianum, a circus and public baths (later called ThermaeHelenae), came into her possession. Several inscriptions (e.g., CIL,6.1134, 1135, 1136) found in the area, are evidence for a closeconnection between Helena and the fundus Laurentus. So is her interest inthe newly found basilica Ss. Marcellino e Pietro which was built in thearea that belonged to the fundus Laurentus (Lib. Pont., I, 183), as wellas the fact that she was buried in a mausoleum attached to this basilica.

Helena must have been a prominent person at the imperial court. Before324 she held the title of Nobilissma Femina as may be concluded fromcoins. In 324, after Constantine's defeat of Licinius, Helena receivedthe title of Augusta. The increase of coins - with the legend SECURITASREIPUBLICE - and inscriptions bearing this title indicate Helena's risein status and her prominency within the Neo-Flavian dynasty.

Although it has been suggested that from her childhood on Helena had feltgreat sympathy for Christianity, it is more likely that she onlyconverted after 312 when her son Constantine began to protect and favourthe Christian church. Eusebius reports that Helena was converted byConstantine and that he made her a devoted servant of God (VC, 3.47).That she once was Jewish, as suggested by the Actus Sylvestri and takenseriously by J. Vogt is most unlikely. There are indications - e.g. hersympathy for the martyr Lucian, Arius' teacher - that Helena wasfavourable towards Arianism.

The most memorable event of Helena's life was her journey to Palestineand the other eastern provinces in 327-328. Because of Eusebius'description of this journey (VC, 3.42-47), it is generally looked upon asa pilgrimage. Eusebius only has eyes for the religious aspects of herjourney. He depicts Helena as driven by religious enthusiasm: she wantsto pray at the places where Christ's feet had touched the ground, shecares for the poor and needy, she only does good deeds and is generous,and she builds churches. However, it may also be possible that herjourney to the East was a political act of conciliation. People living inthe East may have been dissatisfied with Constantine's radical(religious) reforms, which included e.g. the replacement of manyofficials by Christian dignitaries and the rigorous suppression of pagancults. Furthermore, Constantine's popularity may have suffered severedamage from murdering his wife Fausta and his son Crispus in 326. Areason why Helena travelled to the East may therefore have been toappease the inhabitants of the eastern regions of the Empire.

Shortly after her journey to the East Helena died in the presence of herson Constantine (Euseb., VC, 3.46). The abrupt interruption in the issueof Helena Augusta-coins in the spring of 329 suggests that she diedeither at the end of 328 or the beginning of 329. She was buried in Romein the mausoleum near the Ss. Marcellino e Pietro at the Via Labicana.The porphyry sarcophagus, which contained her remains, is now in theVatican Museum.

Her greatest fame Helena acquired by an act for which she was probablynot responsible, i.e. the finding of the True Cross. Her presence inJerusalem and the description Eusebius presented of her stay in the HolyLand led ultimately to connecting Helena with the discovery of the Cross.Remains of the Cross were already venerated in the Church of the HolySepulchre in Jerusalem at the end of the 340s as is clear from sermons ofCyril, bishop of Jerusalem (Cat. 4.10, 10.19, 13.4 PG 33, 467ff, 685-687,777). After 7 May 351, Cyril wrote the Emperor Constantius II that theCross was discovered during the reign of Constantine I; the bishop givesno indication who discovered the rel ic (Ep. ad Const., 3 PG 33, 1168B).The Emperor Julian believed in the discovery of the relic; he rebukesChristians for worshipping the object (Contra Gal. 194C). The legend ofHelena's discovery of the Cross originated in Jerusal em in the secondhalf of the fourth century and rapidly spread over the whole empire.Three versions of the legend came into existence in Late Antiquity: theHelena legend, the Protonike legend and the Judas Kyriakos legend. TheHelena legend, which was known in Greek and Latin, is found in: Rufinus(Hist. Eccl., 10.7-8), Socrates (Hist. Eccl. 1.17 PG 67, 117ff), Sozomen(Hist., Eccl. 2.1-2) Theodoretus (Hist. Eccl.. 1.18), Ambrose (De obituTheod., 40-49), Paulinus of Nola (Epist., 31.4-5), and Sulpicius Severus(Chron. 2.22-34). The Protonike legend was only known in Syriac (andlater on in Armenian) and was part of the Edessene Doctrina Addai butalso circulated independently in the Syriac-speaking regions. In thisversion of the legend Helena's role is taken over by the fictitiousfirst-century empress Protonike. The Judas Kyriakos legend originated inGreek, but became also known in Latin and Syriac and later on in manyvernacular languages. This version relates how Helena discovered theCross with the help of the Jew Judas, who later converted and receivedthe name Kyriakos. It became the most popular version of the three,probably because of its anti-Judaism.

Because of her alleged discovery of the Cross Helena became a saint inthe Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Church. Her feast day in theeastern church is 21 May and in the western church 18 August.

Bibliography -

Barnes, T.D. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge, 1980.
Borgehammer, S. How the Holy Cross was Found: From Event to MedievalLegend. Stockholm, 1991.
Brubaker, Leslie. "Memories of Helena: Patterns in Imperial FemaleMatronage in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries", in: Liz James (ed.), Women,Men and Eunuchs. Gender in Byzantium, London/New York 1997, pp. 52-75.
Bruun, Patrick. Roman Imperial Coinage 7: Constantine and Licinius A.D.313-337. London, 1966.
Cohen, H. Description historique des monnaies frapp?es sous l'Empireromain. Paris, 1880-1892.
Couzard, R. Sainte H?l?ne d'apr?s l'histoire et la tradition. Paris,1911.
Deichmanm, F.W. and A. Tschira. "Das Mausoleum der Kaiserin Helena unddie Basilika der heiligen Marcellinus und Petrus an der Via Labicana vorRom." Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts. 72(1957): 44ff.
Drijvers Han J.W., and Jan Willem Drijvers, The Finding of the TrueCross. The Judas Kyriakos Legend in Syriac. Introduction Text andTranslation, CSCO 565, Subs. 93, Louvain 1997.
Drijvers, Jan Willem. Helena Augusta: The Mother of Constantine the Greatand her Finding of the True Cross. Leiden, 1992.
________. "Helena Augusta: Exemplary Christian Empress." StudiaPatristica. 25(1993): 85ff.
Frolow, A. La Relique de la Vraie Croix: Recherches sur le d?veloppementd'un culte. Paris, 1961.
Heid, S. "Der Ursprung der Helenslegende im Pilgerbetrieb Jerusalems."Jahrbuch f?r Antike und Christentum 32(1989): 41ff.
Heinen, H. "Helena, Konstantin und die ?berlieferung der Kreuzauffindungim 4. Jahrhundert." In E. Aretz et al. Der Heilige Rock zu Trier: Studienzur Geschichte und Verehrung der Tunika Christi. Trier, 1995, 83ff.
________. Fr?christliches Trier: Von den Anf?ngen bis zurV?lkerwanderung. Trier, 1996.
Hunt, E.D. Holy Land Pilgrimage in the Later Roman Empire AD 312-460.Oxford, 1982.
Kienast, Dietmar. R?mische Kaisertabelle: Grundz?ge einer r?mischenKaiserchronologie. Darmstadt, 1996.(rev. ed.)
Klein, R. "Helena." Reallexikon f?r Antike und Christentum. 14(1987):355ff.
Jones, A.H.M., J.R. Martindale, and J. Morris. "Fl. Iulia Helena 3," theProsopography of the Later Roman Empire. Cambridge, 1971, 1.410ff.
Maurice, J. Numismatique Constantienne. 3 vols., Paris, 1908-1912.
________. Sainte H?l?ne: L'Art et les Saints. Paris, 1930.
L'Orange, H.P. Das sp?tantike Herrscherbild von Diokletian bis zu denKonstantin-S?hnen 284-361 n. Chr., mit einem Nachtrag von Max Wegner, DieBildnisse der Frauen und des Julian. Berlin 1984.
Pohlsander, Hans A. Helena: Empress and Saint. Chicago, 1996.
Rouillon, A.-M. Sainte H?l?ne. Paris, 1908.
Seeck, O. "Helena (2)." RE 7: col. 2820ff.
Simon, E. Die Konstantinische Deckengem?lde in Trier, Trierer Beitr?gezur Altertumskunde 3. Mainz, 1986.
Straubinger, J. Die Kreuzauffindungslegende: Untersuchungen ?ber ihrealtchristlichen Fassungen mit besonderer Ber?cksichtigung der syrischenTexte. Paderborn, 1912.
Vogt, J. "Helena Augusta, das Kreuz und die Juden: Fragen um die MutterConstantins des Grossen." Saeculum. Jahrbuch f?r Universalgeschichte.27(1976): 211ff.
Weber, W. Constantinische Deckengem?lde aus dem r?mischen Palast unterdem Dom. Bisch?fliches Museum Trier, Museumf?hrer Nr.1, Trier, 1984.

Copyright (C) 1996, Jan Willem Drijvers. This file may be copied on thecondition that the entire contents, including the header and thiscopyright notice, remain intact.